martial Essay Example

martial Essay Example martial Essay martial Essay Martial arts From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The martial art of boxing was practiced in the ancient Thera. Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practices, which are practiced for a variety of reasons: self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, entertainment, as well as mental, physical, and spiritual development. Although the term martial art has become heavily associated with the fighting arts of eastern Asia, it was originally used in regard to the combat systems of Europe as early as the 1 550s. An English fencing manual of 1639 used the term in reference pecifically to the Science and Art of swordplay. The term is ultimately derived from Latin, and means arts of Mars, where Mars is the Roman god of war. [l] Some authors, most notably Donn F. Draeger, have argued that fghting arts or fghting systems would be more appropriate on the basis that many martial arts were never martial in the sense of being used or created by professional warriors. [2] Contents 1 Variation and scope 1. 1 By technical focus 1. 2 By application or intent 2 History 2. 1 Historical martial arts 2. Folk styles 2. 3 Modern history 3 Testing and competition 3. 1 Light- and medium-contact . 2 Full-contact 3. 3 Martial Sport 4 Health and fitness benefits 5 Self-defense, military and law enforcement applications 6. 1 Martial arts fraud 7 See also 7. 1 Equipment 8 References Variation and scope 6 Martial arts industry Martial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including: Traditional or histo rical arts and contemporary styles of folk wrestling vs. modern hybrid martial arts. Regional origin, especially Eastern Martial Arts vs. Western Martial Arts Techniques taught: Armed vs. narmed, and within these groups by type of weapon (swordsmanship, stick fghting etc. and by type of combat (grappling vs. striking; stand-up fighting vs. ground fighting) By application or intent: self- defense, combat sport, choreography or demonstration of forms, physical fitness, meditation, etc. Within Chinese tradition: external vs. internal styles By technical focus Unarmed Unarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes, those focusing on grappling and those that cover both fields, often described as hybrid martial arts. Strikes Punching: Boxing (Western), Wing Chun Kicking: Capoeira, Kickboxing, Taekwondo, Savate Others using strikes: Karate, Muay Thai, Sanshou Grappling Throwing: Jujutsu, Aikido, Hapkido, Judo, Sambo Joint lock/Chokeholds/Submission holds: Judo, Jujutsu, Aikido, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Hapkido Pinning Techniques: Jujutsu, Judo, Wrestling, Sambo Another key delineation of unarmed martial arts is the use of power and strength- based techniques (as found in boxing, kickboxing, karate, taekwondo and so on) vs. echniques that almost exclusively use the opponents own energy/balance against them (as in Tai chi chuan, aikido, hapkido and aiki Jiu Jitsu and similar). Another way to view this division is to consider the differences between arts where Power and Speed are the main keys to success vs. arts that rely to a much greater extent on correct body-mechanics and the balance of the practitioners energy with that of the opponent. In all such delineations, aspects of many arts, if not most, c an fall within both camps, regardless of which way the defining line is viewed (striking vs. rappling or power vs. energy/balance). Most arts have features on both sides of any such dividing line. Weapon-based Those traditional martial arts which train armed combat often encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons, including bladed weapons and polearms. Such raditions include eskrima, silat, kalaripayat, kobudo, and historical European martial arts, especially those of the German Renaissance. Many Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum. Sometimes, training with one specific weapon will be considered a style of martial arts in its own right, which is especially the case in Japanese martial arts with disciplines such as kenJutsu and kendo (sword), boJutsu (stafO, and kyudo (archery). Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include modern fencing, stick- fghting systems like canne de combat or singlestick, and modern competitive rchery. By application or intent Combat-oriented Main articles: Combat sport and Self-defense Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Indian martial arts which may teach bone-setting, and other aspects of traditional Indian medicine. [3] Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns. For example, gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Sikhs of the Punjab region of India. Japanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are often strongly influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Concepts like empty mind and beginners mind are recurrent. Aikido, for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Morihei Ueshiba. Traditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the practitioners spiritual and philosophical development. A common theme in most Korean styles, such as taekkyeon and taekwondo, is the value of inner peace in a ractitioner, which is stressed to be only achieved through individual meditation and training. As with most other East Asian martial arts, the Koreans believe that the use of physical force is only Justified through defense. Systema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of Russian Orthodox thought, to foster self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practitioner in different levels: the physical, the psychological and the spiritual. [4] Some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons, such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off kill in a more stylized manner. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms. (See also war dance. ) History Pankratiasts fighting under the eyes of a Judge. Side B of a Panathenaic prize amphora, c. 500 BC. Main article: History of martial arts Further information: Martial arts timeline Historical martial arts Main articles: History of Asian martial arts and Historical European martial arts Further information: History of boxing and History of fencing The oldest work of art depicting scenes of battle, dating back 3400 was the Ancient Egyptian paintings showing some form of struggle comparable to the stocks; 6] and dating back 3000 BC in Mesopotamia (Babylon), reliefs and the poems of the first signs of a struggle were found. 6][7] In Vietnam, dug drawings and sketches from 2879 BC certain ways of combat combined with the use of a sword, stick, bow, and spears. [6] Chinese martial arts originated during the Xia Dynasty more than 4000 years ago. It is said the Yellow Emperor Huangdi (legendary date of ascension 2698 BC) introduced the earliest fghting systems to China. The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous general who, before becomin g Chinas leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, strology and the martial arts. One of his main opponents was Chi You who was credited as the creator of Jiao d, a forerunner to the modern art of Chinese wrestling. The foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese and Indian martial arts. During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350 Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD, with the fgure of Bodhidharma, to China. [9] In Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Ancient Greece. Boxing (pygme, pyx), wrestling (pale) and pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games. The Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle. A number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfghting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. The most famous of these is Johannes Lichtenauers Fechtbuch (Fencing book) of the 14th century, which today forms the basis of the German school of swordsmanship. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial artsTaekkyeon from the Joseon era and texts such as MuyeJebo (1598). Historical martial arts in both Asia and Europe are mostly based on such records of the late medieval to early modern period (1 5th to 17th centuries; see also Kory). European swordsmanship was trained for duels until the Napoleonic era, and developed into sport fencing during the 19th century. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughtons rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867. Europes colonization of Asian countries also brought about a decline in local martial arts, especially with the introduction of firearms. This can clearly be seen in India after the full establishment of British Raj in the 19th century. [10] Similar phenomena occurred in Southeast Asian colonies such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines. Folk styles Main article: Folk wrestling All over the world, there are traditional styles of folk wrestling, and in some cases also stick fighting, rooted in local culture and folklore. In East and Southeast Asia, these are forms such as Korean, Khmer or Mongolian wrestling and Japanese sumo, in South and Southwest Asia Indo-Persian Pehlwani and Dravidian malla-yuddha, in Central and Western Asia Turkic (Uzbek, Tatar) styles; in Europe, there are Icelandic, Swiss and various English wrestling traditions. African folk wrestling includes the West African style of Lutte Traditionnelle. While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not historical in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai style of muay boran developed into the modern national sport of muay Thai, which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts. Modern history Further information: Modern history of East Asian martial arts Late 19th to early 20th century The mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fghting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments of boxing and fencing as sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms of Judo, Jujitsu, karate, and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of Edo period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration. [citation needed] Modern muay Thai ules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade (1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang government. Western interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan. [citation needed] Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance. Edward William Barton-Wright, a railway engineer who had studied Jujutsu while working in Japan between 1894-97, was the first man known to ave taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic style named Bartitsu which combined Jujutsu, Judo, boxing, savate and stick fghting. Fencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics. FILA Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904. The tradition of awarding championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909. 20th century (1914 to 1989) The International Boxing Association was established in 1920. World Fencing Championships have been held since 1921. As Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan and South Korea during World War II and the Korean War and were exposed to local fghting styles. Jujutsu, Judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s-60s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies, most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced. [11] The term kickboxing ($ y 5 was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of muay Thai and karate that he created in the 1950s. American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a ombination of boxing and karate. Taekwondo was developed in the context of the Korean War in the 1950s. The later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in Kung Fu, influenced by martial artist Bruce Lee. Jeet Kune Do, the system he founded, has its roots in Wing Chun, western boxing, savate and fencing. Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners. [12] World Judo Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in 1964. Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970. Jackie Chan, one of the best known Hollywood actors and martial artists. Following the kung fu wave in Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, a number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in western popular culture. These include The Karate Kid (1984) and Bloodsport (1988). This era produced some Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris. Also during the 20th century, a number of martial arts were adapted for self-defense purposes for military hand-to-hand combat. World War II combatives, Kapap (1930s) and Krav Maga (1950s) in Israel, Systema (Soviet era Russia), San Shou (Peoples Republic of China). The US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the Cold War period, but revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989. 1990 to present During the 1990s Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts competitions such as the IJFC and PRIDE. 13] The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced in 1993, based on 1980s Seidokaikan karate. Jackie Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for romoting Chinese martial arts in recent years. With the continual discovery of new Medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice of Historical European Martial Arts and other Western Martial Arts are growing in popularity across the United States an d Europe. November 29, 2011, UNESCO inscribed taekkyeon onto its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity List. 14] Testing and competition Testing or evaluation is important to martial art practitioners of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students ithin individual martial art systems often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring. Steven Ho executing a Jump Spin Hook Kick Various forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact, medium-contact, and full-contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent. Light- and medium-contact These types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the case of light sparring this is usual to touch contact, e. g. a punch should be pulled as soon as or before contact is made. In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch would not be pulled but not hit with full force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not to knock out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions. A referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while Judges mark down scores, as in boxing. Particular targets may be prohibited, certain techniques may be forbidden (such as headbutting or groin hits), and fghters may be required to wear protective equipment on their head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet. Some grappling arts, such as aikido, use a similar method of compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact. In some styles (such as fencing and some styles of Taekwondo sparring), competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as Judged by the referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match. Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges. Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would be nappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full contact Full-contact Further information: Full-contact Full-contact sparring or competition, where strikes are not pulled but thrown with full force as the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring. It is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat. 1 5] In full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is either to knock out the opponent or to force the opponent to submit. Where scoring takes place it may be a ubsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as the IJFC 1, there was no scoring, though most now use some form of Judging as a backup. [16] Due to these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, b ut rule sets may still mandate the use of protective equipment, or limit the techniques allowed. Nearly all mixed martial arts organizations such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form of full-contact rules, as do professional boxing organizations and K-1 . Kyokushin karate requires advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact parring while wearing only a karate gi and groin protector but does not allow punches to the face, only kicks and knees. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques. Martial Sport Main article: Combat sport Several martial arts, such as Judo, are Olympic sports. Martial arts have crossed over into sports when forms of sparring become competitive, becoming a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with western fencing. The Summer Olympic Games includes Judo, taekwondo, western archery, boxing, Javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, while Chinese wushu recently failed in its bid to be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some arts such as kickboxing and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts such as aikido and Wing Chun generally spurn such competitions. Some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which ompetition takes place have diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character. The question of which is the best martial art has led to inter style competitions fought with very few rules allowing a variety of fighting styles to enter with few limitations. This was the origin of the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament (later renamed IJFC 1: The Beginning) in the U. S. inspired by the Brazilian Vale tudo tradition and along with other minimal rule competitions, most otably those from Japan such as Shooto and Pancrase, have evolved into the combat sport of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA). Some martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed routines of techniques such as poomse, kata and aka, or modern variations of the martial arts which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking. Martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus for the attempt by the Peoples Republic of China in transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated port of wushu was suppressing what they saw as the potentially subversive aspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages. [17] Health and fitness benefits Martial arts training aims to result in several benefits to trainees, such as their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health. 18] Through systematic practice in the martial arts a persons physical fitness may be boosted (strength, stamina, flexibility, movement coordination, etc. )[citation needed] as the whole body is exercised and the entire muscular system is activated. Beyond ontributing to physical fitness, martial arts training also has benefits for mental health, contributing to self-esteem, self-control, emotional and spiritual well-being. For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have focused purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or combat completely. [citation needed] According to Bruce Lee, martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional communication and complete emotional expression. [citation needed] Self- defense, military and law enforcement applications Main articles: Hand to hand combat and Self-defense U. S. Army Combatives instructor Matt Larsen demonstrates a chokehold. Some traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps the most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more effectively utilize a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would master movements with their sword. During the World War II era William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes were recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) to teach their martial art of defendu (itself drawing on Western boxing and Jujutsu) and pistol shooting to I-JK, US, and Canadian pecial forces. The book Kill or Get Killed, written by Colonel Rex Applegate, was based on the defendu taught by Sykes and Fairbairn. Both Fairbairns Get Tough and Appelgates Kill or Get Killed became classic works on hands of this include European Unifght, the US Armys Combatives system developed by Matt Larsen, the Israeli armys kapap and Krav Maga, and the US Marine Corpss Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Unarmed dagger defenses identical to those found in the manual of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex Wallerstein were integrated into the U. S. Armys training manuals in 1942[19] and continue to influence todays systems along with other traditional systems such as eskrima and silat. The rifle-mounted bayonet, which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War. [20] Many martial arts are also seen and used in Law Enforcement hand to hand training. For example, the Tokyo Riot Polices use of aikido. Martial arts industry Martial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the wider sport industry (including cinema and sports television). Hundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art. Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide. [21] The South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries. [22] The wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was estimated at 314 million USD in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6. 9 million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population). [23] R. A. Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel, stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at USD 40 billion and the number of US practitioners at 30 million in 2003. [24] Ultimate Fighting Championship generated a revenue of about USD 250 million in 2008, about 90% of the entire Mixed Martial Arts industry. [25] Martial arts fraud Asian martial arts experienced a surge of popularity in the west during the 1970s,

Women and Revolution in China and Iran

Women and Revolution in China and Iran During the 20th century, both China and Iran underwent revolutions that significantly changed their social structures. In each case, the role of women in society also shifted enormously as a result of the revolutionary changes that took place - but the outcomes were quite different for Chinese and Iranian women. Women in Pre-Revolutionary China During the late Qing Dynasty era in China, women were viewed as the property first of their birth families, and then of their husbands families. They were not really family members - neither the birth family nor the marriage family recorded a womans given name on the genealogical record. Women had no separate property rights, nor did they have parental rights over their children if they chose to leave their husbands. Many suffered extreme abuse at the hands of their spouses and in-laws. Throughout their lives, women were expected to obey their fathers, husbands, and sons in turn. Female infanticide was common among families who felt that they already had enough daughters and wanted more sons. Ethnic Han Chinese women of the middle and upper classes had their feet bound, as well, limiting their mobility and keeping them close to home. If a poor family wanted their daughter to be able to marry well, they might bind her feet when she was a small child. Foot binding was excruciatingly painful; first, the girls arch bones were broken, then the foot was tied with a long strip of cloth into the lotus position. Eventually, the foot would heal that way. A woman with bound feet could not work in the fields; thus, foot-binding was a boast on the familys part that they did not need to send their daughters out to work as farmers. The Chinese Communist Revolution Although the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) and the Communist Revolution caused enormous suffering throughout the twentieth century, for women, the rise of communism resulted in a significant improvement in their social status. According to communist doctrine, all workers were supposed to be accorded equal worth, regardless of their gender. With the collectivization of property, women were no longer at a disadvantage compared with their husbands. One goal of revolutionary politics, according to the Communists, was womens liberation from the male-dominated system of private property. Of course, women from the property-owning class in China suffered humiliation and the loss of their status, just as their fathers and husbands did. However, the vast majority of Chinese women were peasants - and they gained social status, at least, if not material prosperity, in post-revolutionary Communist China. Women in Pre-Revolutionary Iran In Iran under the Pahlavi shahs, improved educational opportunities and social standing for women formed one of the pillars of the modernization drive. During the nineteenth century, Russia and Britain vied for influence in Iran, bullying the weak Qajar state. When the Pahlavi family took control, they sought to strengthen Iran by adopting certain western characteristics - including increased rights and opportunities for women. (Yeganeh 4) Women could study, work, and under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavis rule (1941 - 1979), even vote. Primarily, though, womens education was intended to produce wise, helpful mothers and wives, rather than career women. From the introduction of the new Constitution in 1925 until the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iranian women received free universal education and increased career opportunities. The government forbade women from wearing the chador, a head-to-toe covering preferred by highly religious women, even removing the veils by force. (Mir-Hosseini 41) Under the shahs, women got jobs as government ministers, scientists, and judges. Women got the right to vote in 1963, and the Family Protection Laws of 1967 and 1973 protected womens right to divorce their husbands and to petition for custody of their children. The Islamic Revolution in Iran Although women played an important role in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, pouring out into the streets and helping to drive Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi out of power, they lost a considerable number of rights once the Ayatollah Khomeini took control of Iran. Just after the revolution, the government decreed that all women had to wear the chador in public, including news anchors on television. Women who refused could face public whipping and prison time. (Mir-Hosseini 42) Rather than having to go to court, men could once more simply declare I divorce you three times to dissolve their marriages; women, meanwhile, lost all right to sue for divorce. After Khomeinis death in 1989, some of the strictest interpretation of law were lifted. (Mir-Hosseini 38) Women, particularly those in Tehran and other large cities, began to go out not in chador, but with a wisp of scarf (barely) covering their hair and with full makeup. Nonetheless, women in Iran continue to face weaker rights today than they did in 1978. It takes the testimony of two women to equal the testimony of one man in court. Women accused of adultery have to prove their innocence, rather than the accuser proving their guilt, and if convicted they may be executed by stoning. Conclusion The twentieth-century revolutions in China and Iran had very different effects on womens rights in those countries. Women in China gained social status and value after the Communist Party took control; after the Islamic Revolution, women in Iran lost many of the rights they had gained under the Pahlavi shahs earlier in the century. Conditions for women in each country vary today, though, based on where they live, what family they are born into, and how much education they have attained. Sources Ip, Hung-Yok. Fashioning Appearances: Feminine Beauty in Chinese Communist Revolutionary Culture, Modern China, Vol. 29, No. 3 (July 2003), 329-361. Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. The Conservative-Reformist Conflict over Womens Rights in Iran, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Fall 2002), 37-53. Ng, Vivien. Sexual Abuse of Daughters-in-law in Qing China: Cases from the Xingan Huilan, Feminist Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2, 373-391. Watson, Keith. The Shahs White Revolution - Education and Reform in Iran, Comparative Education, Vol. 12, No. 1 (March 1976), 23-36. Yeganeh, Nahid. Women, Nationalism and Islam in Contemporary Political Discourse in Iran, Feminist Review, No. 44 (Summer 1993), 3-18.